Optical cooling by interfacial charge transfer in 2D heterostructures

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during this study are available from the corresponding authors on request. Source data are provided with this paper.

Code availability

The custom Python code used to reconstruct the far-infrared dielectric functions, perform the WSe2/MoSe2 near-field radiative heat transfer calculations and evaluate model sensitivity is available at Zenodo55 (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19697929). The actively maintained development repository is available at GitHub (https://github.com/RenguangLiu/NFRHT-MoSe2toWSe2).

References

Pringsheim, P. Zwei Bemerkungen über den Unterschied von Lumineszenz- und Temperaturstrahlung. Z. Physik 57, 739–746 (1929).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Epstein, R. I., Buchwald, M. I., Edwards, B. C., Gosnell, T. R. & Mungan, C. E. Observation of laser-induced fluorescent cooling of a solid. Nature 377, 500–503 (1995).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Seletskiy, D. V. et al. Laser cooling of solids to cryogenic temperatures. Nat. Photon. 4, 161–164 (2010).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Zhang, J., Li, D., Chen, R. & Xiong, Q. Laser cooling of a semiconductor by 40 kelvin. Nature 493, 504–508 (2013).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Ha, S.-T., Shen, C., Zhang, J. & Xiong, Q. Laser cooling of organic-inorganic lead halide perovskites. Nat. Photon. 10, 115–121 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Melgaard, S. D., Albrecht, A. R., Hehlen, M. P. & Sheik-Bahae, M. Solid-state optical refrigeration to sub-100 Kelvin regime. Sci. Rep. 6, 20380 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Mobini, E. et al. Laser cooling of ytterbium-doped silica glass. Commun. Phys. 3, 134 (2020).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Topper, B. et al. Laser cooling ytterbium doped silica by 67 K from ambient temperature. Opt. Express 32, 3660–3672 (2024).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Roder, P. B., Smith, B. E., Zhou, X., Crane, M. J. & Pauzauskie, P. J. Laser refrigeration of hydrothermal nanocrystals in physiological media. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 15024–15029 (2015).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Zhang, Q. et al. Phonon-assisted anti-Stokes lasing in ZnTe nanoribbons. Adv. Mater. 28, 276–283 (2015).

Article

PubMed

Google Scholar

Zhang, Z. et al. Principles for demonstrating condensed phase optical refrigeration. Nat. Rev. Phys. 7, 149–153 (2025).

Article

Google Scholar

Rivera, P. et al. Valley-polarized exciton dynamics in a 2D semiconductor heterostructure. Science 351, 688–691 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Cao, Y. et al. Unconventional superconductivity in magic-angle graphene superlattices. Nature 556, 43–50 (2018).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Tran, K. et al. Evidence for moiré excitons in van der Waals heterostructures. Nature 567, 71–75 (2019).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Xu, W. G. et al. Correlated fluorescence blinking in two-dimensional semiconductor heterostructures. Nature 541, 62–67 (2017).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Xu, W., Zhao, Y., Shen, C., Zhang, J. & Xiong, Q. Phonon-assisted upconversion photoluminescence in monolayer MoSe2 and WSe2. Acta Chim. Sin. 73, 959–964 (2015).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Jones, A. M. et al. Excitonic luminescence upconversion in a two-dimensional semiconductor. Nat. Phys. 12, 323–327 (2016).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Wang, S. et al. Light-emitting diodes based on intercalated transition metal dichalcogenides with suppressed efficiency roll-off at high generation rates. Nat. Electron. 8, 56–65 (2025).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Lien, D.-H. et al. Electrical suppression of all nonradiative recombination pathways in monolayer semiconductors. Science 364, 468–471 (2019).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Dalla Valle, P., Bescond, M., Michelini, F. & Cavassilas, N. Laser cooling in semiconductor heterojunctions by extraction of photogenerated carriers. Phys. Rev. Appl. 20, 014066 (2023).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Dalla Valle, P., Bescond, M., Michelini, F. & Cavassilas, N. Solar refrigeration based on impact ionization in a transition metal dichalcogenides superlattice. J. Phys. Chem. C 128, 4905–4913 (2024).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Sun, Q. et al. Designable excitonic effects in van der Waals artificial crystals with exponentially growing thickness. Nat. Commun. 16, 2712 (2025).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Zhu, H. et al. Interfacial charge transfer circumventing momentum mismatch at two-dimensional van der Waals heterojunctions. Nano Lett. 17, 3591–3598 (2017).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Schmitt, D. et al. Formation of moiré interlayer excitons in space and time. Nature 608, 499–503 (2022).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Long, R. & Prezhdo, O. V. Quantum coherence facilitates efficient charge separation at a MoS2/MoSe2 van der Waals junction. Nano Lett. 16, 1996–2003 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Yao, W., Liu, G.-B & Yu, H. Interlayer coupling in commensurate and incommensurate bilayer structures of transition-metal dichalcogenides. Phys. Rev. B 95, 115429 (2017).

Article

ADS

Google Scholar

Zheng, Q. et al. Phonon-assisted ultrafast charge transfer at van der Waals heterostructure interface. Nano Lett. 17, 6435–6442 (2017).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Zhou, H., Zhao, Y. & Zhu, H. Dielectric environment-robust ultrafast charge transfer between two atomic layers. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 10, 150–155 (2018).

Article

PubMed

Google Scholar

Kim, S. E. et al. Extremely anisotropic van der Waals thermal conductors. Nature 597, 660–665 (2021).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Zhang, R. et al. Extreme thermal insulation and tradeoff of thermal transport mechanisms between graphene and WS2 monolayers. Adv. Mater. 36, 2313753 (2024).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Xia, J. et al. Strong coupling and pressure engineering in WSe2-MoSe2 heterobilayers. Nat. Phys. 17, 92–98 (2020).

Article

Google Scholar

Alexeev, E. M. et al. Resonantly hybridized excitons in moiré superlattices in van der Waals heterostructures. Nature 567, 81–86 (2019).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Li, H. et al. Spontaneous polarity flipping in a 2D heterobilayer induced by fluctuating interfacial carrier flows. Nano Lett. 21, 6773–6780 (2021).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Dickinson, R. G. & Pauling, L. The crystal structure of molybdenite. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 45, 1466–1471 (1923).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Zhang, J., Zhang, Q., Wang, X., Kwek, L. C. & Xiong, Q. Resolved-sideband Raman cooling of an optical phonon in semiconductor materials. Nat. Photon. 10, 600–605 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Meng, Q. et al. Local heating and Raman thermometry in a single molecule. Sci. Adv. 10, eadl1015 (2024).

Article

CAS

PubMed

PubMed Central

Google Scholar

Zhao, Y. et al. Interlayer breathing and shear modes in few-trilayer MoS2 and WSe2. Nano Lett. 13, 1007–1015 (2013).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Lu, X., Luo, X., Zhang, J., Quek, S. Y. & Xiong, Q. Lattice vibrations and Raman scattering in two-dimensional layered materials beyond graphene. Nano Res. 9, 3559–3597 (2016).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Lai, J. M., Sun, Y. J., Tan, Q. H., Tan, P. H. & Zhang, J. Laser cooling of a lattice vibration in van der Waals semiconductor. Nano Lett. 22, 7129–7135 (2022).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Sigger, F. et al. Spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry of two-dimensional TMDC heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 121, 071102 (2022).

Article

ADS

CAS

Google Scholar

Ding, Z., Pei, Q. X., Jiang, J. W., Huang, W. & Zhang, Y. W. Interfacial thermal conductance in graphene/MoS2 heterostructures. Carbon 96, 888–896 (2016).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Sood, A. et al. Engineering thermal transport across layered graphene-MoS2 superlattices. ACS Nano 15, 19503–19512 (2021).

Article

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Ceballos, F., Bellus, M. Z., Chiu, H.-Y. & Zhao, H. Ultrafast charge separation and indirect exciton formation in a MoS2-MoSe2 van der Waals heterostructure. ACS Nano 8, 12717–12724 (2014).

Article

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Hong, X. et al. Ultrafast charge transfer in atomically thin MoS2/WS2 heterostructures. Nat. Nanotechnol. 9, 682–686 (2014).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Atkins, P., Paula, J. D. & Keeler, J. Atkins’ Physical Chemistry (Oxford Univ. Press, 2018).

Choi, J. et al. Twist angle-dependent interlayer exciton lifetimes in van der Waals heterostructures. Phys. Rev. Lett. 126, 047401 (2021).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Ghiotto, A. et al. Quantum criticality in twisted transition metal dichalcogenides. Nature 597, 345–349 (2021).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Yu, L. et al. Observation of quadrupolar and dipolar excitons in a semiconductor heterotrilayer. Nat. Mater. 22, 1485–1491 (2023).

Article

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Wu, Z. et al. Realization of two-dimensional spin-orbit coupling for Bose-Einstein condensates. Science 354, 83–88 (2016).

Article

ADS

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Quan, J. et al. Phonon renormalization in reconstructed MoS2 moiré superlattices. Nat. Mater. 20, 1100–1105 (2021).

Article

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Thompson, A. P. et al. LAMMPS - a flexible simulation tool for particle-based materials modeling at the atomic, meso, and continuum scales. Comput. Phys. Commun. 271, 108171 (2022).

Article

CAS

Google Scholar

Devienne, F. M. Advances in Heat Transfer Vol. 2, 271–356 (Academic Press, 1965).

Li, Z. et al. Influence of thermostatting on nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations of heat conduction in solids. J. Chem. Phys. 151, 234105 (2019).

Article

ADS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Zhang, Q., Zhang, L. Y., Jin, C. H., Wang, Y. M. & Lin, F. CalAtom: a software for quantitatively analysing atomic columns in a transmission electron microscope image. Ultramicroscopy 202, 114–120 (2019).

Article

CAS

PubMed

Google Scholar

Liu, R. RenguangLiu/NFRHT-MoSe2toWSe2: Code for NFRHT calculation in MoSe2/WSe2 heterobilayers. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19697780 (2026).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank L. Yang for discussions on near-field radiative heat transfer.

Funding

W.X. and Q.X. acknowledge support from the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFA1204700). W.X. acknowledges support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (22333004, 223B2304, 22203042 and 22173044). This work has been supported in part by the New Cornerstone Science Foundation (Q.X.). This work was supported by the Mechano-X Institute of Tsinghua University (H.G.). G.W. and Junhao Lin acknowledge support from the National Key Basic Research and Development Program of China (2024YFA1408102 and 2024YFA1409100), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52473302, 12404017, 12461160252 and T2525009), Guangdong Basic Science Foundation (2023B1515120039), Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province, China (2025A1515011998), and Quantum Science Strategic Special Project from the Quantum Science Center of Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area (GDZX2301006 and SZZX2301004). X.W. acknowledges the support of the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFA1602704), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (62275225), and the 111 Project (B16029).

Author information

Author notes

These authors contributed equally: Jiamin Lin, Baixu Xiang, Renguang Liu, Jinyang Ling

Authors and Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE, School of Chemistry, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China

Jiamin Lin, Jinyang Ling, Le Zhang, Li Li, Hua Li, Dongxu Zhang & Weigao Xu

State Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

Baixu Xiang & Qihua Xiong

Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences, Beijing, China

Baixu Xiang & Qihua Xiong

Mechano-X Institute, Applied Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

Renguang Liu & Huajian Gao

State Key Laboratory of Quantum Functional Materials, Department of Physics, and Guangdong Basic Research Center of Excellence for Quantum Science, Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), Shenzhen, China

Gang Wang & Junhao Lin

Key Laboratory of Quantum Materials and Devices of Ministry of Education, School of Physics, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

Zhexing Duan & Qi Zhang

National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China

Changjin Wan

State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), School of Chemistry, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China

Wei Wang

Department of Physics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China

Xingzhi Wang

Quantum Science Center of Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (Guangdong), Shenzhen, China

Junhao Lin

Frontier Science Center for Quantum Information, Beijing, China

Qihua Xiong

Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, China

Qihua Xiong

Authors

Jiamin Lin

Baixu Xiang

Renguang Liu

Jinyang Ling

Gang Wang

Le Zhang

Li Li

Hua Li

Dongxu Zhang

Zhexing Duan

Qi Zhang

Changjin Wan

Wei Wang

Xingzhi Wang

Junhao Lin

Huajian Gao

Qihua Xiong

Weigao Xu

Contributions

W.X. and Jiamin Lin conceived the initial idea. W.X., Q.X. and Jiamin Lin designed the experiments. Jiamin Lin fabricated the samples and performed the spectroscopy measurement experiments with help from L.Z., Jinyang Ling, L.L. and D.Z.; B.X. and Q.X. optimized the temporal resolution and conducted the pump–probe transient absorption measurements. R.L. and H.G. conducted the molecular dynamics simulations. Z.D. and Q.Z. contributed to the PLQY measurements. G.W. and Junhao Lin performed the STEM-related experiments. Jiamin Lin, B.X., R.L., and Jinyang Ling analysed the data with discussions from H.L., X.W., W.W., C.W., H.G., Q.X. and W.X.; Jiamin Lin organized all experimental data. Jiamin Lin, B.X., R.L., Jinyang Ling, H.G., Q.X. and W.X. wrote the paper with input from all authors.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to

Huajian Gao, Qihua Xiong or Weigao Xu.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information (download PDF )

This file contains the following: coupling state characterization and classification (Supplementary Note 1, Supplementary Figs. 1, 2, 5, 10 and Supplementary Table 1); details of optical thermometry (Supplementary Notes 2 and 3, Supplementary Figs. 3, 4, 6–9, 11 and Supplementary Tables 2 and 3); interfacial thermal transport simulations (Supplementary Note 4, Supplementary Figs. 12, 16 and Supplementary Tables 4–6); dDetails on transient absorption experiments and analysis (Supplementary Note 5 and Supplementary Figs. 3, 13–15).

Peer Review file (download PDF )

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lin, J., Xiang, B., Liu, R. et al. Optical cooling by interfacial charge transfer in 2D heterostructures.

Nature (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10662-w

Download citation

Received: 02 April 2025

Accepted: 14 May 2026

Published: 24 June 2026

Version of record: 24 June 2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10662-w